To investigate the effect of vermicompost, N fertilizer and their integration on growth, biological and essential yields oil and its components in two populations (Varamin and Isfahan), an experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with three replications in the field of Isfahan Medicinal Plants Research Center in 2016. Fertilizer treatments including 100% urea, vermicompost 33.3 and urea 66.6%, vermicompost 66.6 and urea 33.3%, 100% vermicompost and control treatment (without fertilizer) as the first factor and Varamin and Isfahan populations as the second factor were selected. The results showed that the interaction effects of nitrogen fertilizer and populations on all studied traits were significant. In both populations, nitrogen fertilizer improved height, biological and essential oil yields, content of essential oil compounds (d-Carvone and its yield, α-phellandrene and linalool; except p-Cymene and Limonene in Isfahan population). Since in medicinal plants, the quantity (biological yield) and quality (essential oil and d-Carvone; the most important ingredient and the highest amount of essential oil in this experiment), 66.6% vermicompost + 33.3% urea in Varamin population, was the best treatment in the experiment. In addition an in the direction of human health and sustainable agriculture, it is possible to reduce 33% of chemical fertilizers application and pollution; however, in terms of other essential oil contents (α-phellandrene, Linalool and p-Cymene), 100% vermicompost fertilizer treatment was superior in Isfahan population.

In order to investigate the possibility of quinoa producing in Garmsar, Iran, a factorial experiment conducted in randomized complete block design with three replications in 2018-2019 growing season at Garmsar Agricultural Research Station. The factors were planting date at three levels (March 6th, April 1st and April 6th) and the three genotypes of quinoa (Q26, Q29 and Titicaca). Results showed that the effect of planting date was significant for all studied traits except the harvest index. Also, all studied traits were significantly different in all genotypes. Titicaca planted on March 6th had the highest yield (2276 kg.ha-1).The grain yield and yield components decreased with the delaying the planting date. Compared to early plantings, Latest date, April 6th, led to reduction of all traits, especially grain yield (about 50%). The results of simple phenotypic correlation between the studied traits showed that grain yield per hectare had the highest correlation with plant yield (0.877) and then with leaf area index (0.832), panicle weight (0.815) and number of branches per plant (0.745) that was significant at the 1% probability level.

Desert growth in Iran is a major problem. A large part of the country is surrounded by vulnerable areas at risk of desertification, so that about 75% of the ecosystems of arid and semi-arid regions of the country, face the effects and consequences of desertification. Effects such as the drying up of inland lakes, sandstorms, dust and intensification of wind erosion are a clear manifestation of the growing rate of desertification in recent years in the country. In arid and semi-arid ecosystems, there is little vegetation due to lack of moisture and other adverse climatic conditions. As a result, soils are more prone to degradation, but in some of these areas, despite the lack of soil moisture, high temperatures and other unfavorable ecological conditions, the distances between plants are often covered by a community of microscopic plants, and this Communities are known as biological soil crusts. Biological soil crusts are the association of soil mineral particles with cyanobacteria, algae, fungi, lichens, or bryophytes and are common coverings in open spaces around vascular plants in arid and semi-arid regions. Biological crusts significantly affect early ecosystem processes and have been described as ecological engineers in arid regions.

The aim of the study is determination of the correlation between factors affecting in the wheat yield and preparing of yield mapping of wheat in north of Darab city. In order to determine the relationship between biological and grain yield with some of the important agronomic traits 60 samples in the north of Darab city was investigated. Parameters such as plant height, seed weight, harvest index, tiller number, latitude and longitude for each of the samples was measured. The results show that grain weight has highest correlation with the biological yield (0. 97**). In this study, also using the Kriging (Gaussian models, spherical, circular and exponential models) and average inverse distance (IDW) maps of the biological yield and grain weight was determined. The results of the interpolation showed that kriging method (Gaussian model) with a minimum error (RMSE=0. 98 for biologic yield and RMSE=0. 97 for grain weight) was the best model for preparation of these parameters in the study area. Also the results of biologic yield map showed that areas locating in the North West of the study area had the highest yield.

Background and Objective: Biological soil crusts are a collection of lichens, mosses, fungi, cyanobacteria, etc. that are part of the soil ecosystem. Estimation of density and distribution of biological soil crusts in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran, which is the subject of soil erosion and wastage is very important. Methods based on remote sensing techniques are important in terms of cost and time less efficient methods to achieve this goal. Segzi plain is one of the critical points of wind erosion in Iran and identifying and determining the distribution of biological soil crusts as a soil modifier is an effective step in reducing wind erosion in the region. In this research, BSCI (Biological Soil Crust) index has been used to prepare the distribution map of lichen-dominated biological soil crusts. Materials and Methods: The study area is part of the Sajzi Desert (Central Deserts of Iran) which is located in Isfahan province of Iran. The study area with an area of 199. 5 hectares is spread between the eastern lengths of 51o52'32" to 52o27'41" and the northern widths of 32o33'31" to 32o55'01". The average slope of Segzi plain is 1. 08 percent and its average height is 1680 meters. According to the statistics of East Isfahan Meteorological Station (Shahid Beheshti Station), the average annual rainfall in the region is 106 mm. According to the Dumarten climatic classification, the climate of the region is dry and according to the Amberge classification it is cold. The BSCI index is a combination of the relationships used to estimate vegetation and bare soil surface, and its mathematical relationship is the slope of the soil line. To calculate the soil line in an area, one must first separate the pixels that have bare soil and no vegetation. In order to calculate the soil line equation, in four seasons of a year, images of Landsat OLI 8 satellite related to 2018 were downloaded from the site of the US Geological Survey and 20 to 30 pixels of pure bare soil were extracted by drawing the reflection values of these pixels in the red and infrared band. Red near soil line coefficients were calculated for each season in the Segzi Plain. Based on BSCI index, lichen-dominated biological soil crust are identified using at least VIS-NIR spectral reflection and the slope between the red and green bands compared to bare soil and dry vegetation. Using ENVI software, the distribution shells of biological shells with lichen dominance were prepared in four seasons since 2018 in Segzi plain. Then, the prepared maps were validated based on land points and the total accuracy and kappa index were calculated in all four seasons. The collected lichen samples were identified based on their morphological characteristics and using a stereomicroscope, conventional microscope and common color reagents such as potassium hydroxide (KOH). After applying the BSCI index on the Landsat OLI 8 satellite image, using ENVI software, spectral profiles related to 4 points of Segzi plain in four seasons of the year were prepared and the spectral reflection in four seasons of the year in different points were examined. Results and Discussion: The slope of the soil line is lower in the rainy season, which coincides with the growth of herbaceous and annual plants, compared to the summer season, which has the least amount of rainfall, and the annual plants have dried up and become extinct. In May, the slope of the soil line was minimal (0. 39) and in late summer it has its maximum value (0. 78). In fact, the slope of the soil line has decreased from mid-August to May, and then has increased with the loss of annual vegetation and the increase of bare soil surface. The distribution maps of bio-shells in all four seasons of the year were validated during field visits and the year it was found that the highest accuracy of the map related to the map produced from Landsat 8 image is related to summer with 94% total accuracy and Kappa index equal to 0. 7412. Interpretation of the spectral profiles of the BSCI index shows that the reflections of the spectra related to the zephyr and strain prepared on the lichen dispersion points are very close to each other and also the spectral profiles of the mid-autumn and early spring are quite consistent. Whereas in the faults, which did not cover the biological crust, the amount of reflection was higher and there was a slight difference between the reflection diagrams of autumn and spring. Although the reflectance values of a range of agricultural lands and the distribution points of biological crusts are very close to each other, the spectral diagrams of all four seasons are very different from each other. But in all seasons of the year and in all places, the least reflection has occurred in the beginning of winter and the most reflection has occurred in summer. The climate of Segzi plain is Mediterranean and precipitation occurs in the cold season of the year. Simultaneously with the increase of precipitation from the middle of autumn, annual plants and mosses at the base of shrubs begin to grow and reach their peak in early winter and again at the beginning of spring. Decreases in rainfall have reduced their density. If the winter spectrum has the least reflection in all places. While in late summer, when the annuals and mosses have dried up, it has had the greatest spectral reflection. In Fasaran, which is a barren area and a landfill, it has shown its maximum reflection. Therefore, the BSCI index relative to the percentage of organic matter has a significant error in the detection of biological soil crust and where the organic matter is high may not provide accurate diagnosis of soil bioshells. Of course, since the BSCI index is defined for the detection of throat compounds in lichen tissues. The error rate for organic matter is reduced to a minimum. As it has been observed in the final map, there is no cover of biological soil crusts in Fasaran and only soil biological crusts are observed in the areas around Fasaran in the agricultural areas. In agricultural areas, due to human intervention and cultivation, the amount of annual plants is different from the field of natural resources in different seasons of a year have become. Conclusion: Spectral similarity of the most important soil surface, including vegetation, the involvement of human factors in increasing or decreasing soil organic matter, bare soil, etc. limits the efficiency of the BSCI index and therefore in the time period of satellite images and regional conditions have a great impact on It has the accuracy of BSCI index.

SWAP model is called an agro-hydrological, agronomical-hydrological and eco-hydrological model. In this research, SWAP model was studied for estimation of soybean crop yield, biological yield and available moisture percentage in soil during growing season. In this study, first of all results were sensitivity analyzed and calibrated based on soybean cultivation for four furrow irrigation scenarios in agronomical years 2008-2009. Then it was validated based on field results in agronomical year 2009-2010. The results of this study showed that this model simulated crop yield better than biological yield. Also sensitivity analysis of the model showed that SWAP model is sensitive to input data of residual moisture and saturation hydraulic conductivity and with the least variation in soil input including saturation hydraulic conductivity and residual moisture, output results varied greatly. Based on statistical analyses, with a lot of existing variables, SWAP model can estimate the soil moisture, leaf area index, water use efficiency and crop yield well because in all cases coefficients of determination are higher than 0.8 (are equal to 0.86, 0.87, 0.89 and 0.93 respectively) and root mean square error is less than standard deviation of data and mean comparison T-test did not show significant differences between the simulated and measured amounts.

In order to study the efficiency of biological fertilizer consumption in rice fields, an experiment was conducted in 2011 as factorial experiment based on randomized complete block design with three replications. The experimental treatments consisted of mycorrhyza in two levels of inoculation and lack of inoculation and four rice cultivars (unknown, Ali Kazemi, Hasan Saraie and Tareme Hashemi). The results of analysis of variance showed highly significant difference in yiled and yiled components the number of seeds, height and length of the main panicule. Biological fertilizer inoculation lead to significant increase in yield and also yield components, so that the highest yield has been related to the interaction treatment of anonymous cultivar and mycorrhiza fungi and produced yield was more than 6.08 t/ha. In general the results of this experiment showed that fertilizering rice with mycorrhiza can lead to improving rice nutrition and this can increase yield and other agronomic traits of this plant.

To investigate the effect of weed interference and weed-free periods on Balangu (Lallemantia royleana Benth. in Wall) and to evaluate the critical period of weed control (CPWC) in this oilseed crop, an experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design with three replications in Naghadeh region in 2018. Experimental consisted of two groups of treatments; weed infestation treatments (infestation for 144.2, 345.9, 574, 848.2, 1147.6 and 1451.3 growing degree day (GDD) after transplanting and then plots were remained weed-free the rest of the growing season) and weed-free treatments (weeding for 144.2, 345.9, 574, 848.2, 1147.6 and 1451.3 GDD after transplanting and then plots were remained infested until harvesting time). In each block, one weed free and weed infested control was for all the growing season. Results indicated that the density and dry biomass of weeds were increased as weed removal was delayed. In contrast, density and dry biomass of weeds were decreased as weeds establishment was delayed. Height, tetrachenes fruits, ripened achenes, 1000-seed weight and biological, seed and relative yields of Balangu were decreased and increased as the duration of weed-infested and weed-free period increased, respectively. Also, logistic and Gompertz curves fitted to data showed that the beginning and end of the CPWC based on a 10% yield loss of relative yield, was estimated to be from 11 to 108 days after transplanting (97 days weed-free period) in order to prevent a noticeable yield loss.

Identifying the constraining factors of production and yield gap is very important. Therefore; this research was performed to identify the production constraining factors of local rice cultivars. All management practices from nursery preparation to harvesting stages for 100 paddy fields of local rice cultivars were recorded through field studies, in Sari, from 2015-2016. In the CPA, the actual and calculated potential yield were 4495 and 5703 kg/ha, respectively and the gap was 1221 kg/ha. The yield gap caused by number of top-dressing variables was 324 kg/ha, equal to 27% of the total yield gap. The yield gap related to previous year of legumes cultivation was 218 kg ha-1, equal to 18% of the total yield variation. Among the 10 variables entered in the CPA model, the effects of top-dress fertilizer application and its application frequency and foliar application were remarkable, which could compensate a significant part of the yield gap (444 kg/ha, 37% of total) in the farmers’ fields by managing these variables. According to boundary line analysis (BLA) finding, actual yield mean on the basis of optimal limit related to 12 variables under study was 5369 kg/ha, with 881 kg/ha yield gap . Mean relative yield and relative yield gap for 12 variables (transplanting date, seedling age, number of seedlings per hill, planting density, nitrogen and phosphorous per hectare, nitrogen before transplanting, harvesting date, lodging problem, pest problem, diseases problem and weeds problem) were 83.64 and 16.35 kg/ha, respectively. Based on the finding, it can be stated that the model precision is appropriate and can be applied for both estimation of the quantity of yield gap and determining the portion of each restricting yield variables.